Mechanics+of+Writing

=Composing Written Material= =Created by Monica Velez=


 * Introduction || Writing is a complex process that involves both the physical mechanics of handwriting and the cognitive component of organizing, creating or composing written material. This chapter focuses on tools that may assist students who struggle with writing composition.

“Composition is the plan, placement, or arrangements of the elements.” ([|www.wikipedia.org]) Composition of writing involves the ability of the student to express ideas in a way that is meaningful to others. Standards for the development of literacy suggest that good writing necessitates a linear path to the end product. A student is required to learn a concept or series of concepts, to organize that information into a linear form, and then compose the ideas in a meaningful way which creates a presentation that express ideas surrounding a specific topic.

A common concern expressed by teachers, parents, and in some cases, the students themselves is “They have good ideas but just can't get them down on paper.” Understanding the writing sequence and adding supports as needed may help students. For others there may be alternate ways to share or present what they know. The following tools may assist students in overcoming or adapting to the writing obstacles they face. || These tools are commonly used in many elementary school classrooms, and help to provide students who struggle with writing by having frequently used words displayed on the classroom walls, study carrels, dividers, or on charts. These visual tools provide examples of words the student might need to use in the given activity. These words can also be added to word prediction programs that have topic dictionaries for easy retrieval while they are writing. Writing with Pictures: using a picture-based writing program such as //PixWriter// will allow students to write even if they are unable to spell. The student can begin to put together simple picture sentences.
 * Ways to compose written materials are: || * ** Word cards/book/wall **
 * ** Pocket dictionary/thesaurus **
 * ** Writing templates **
 * ** Electronic/talking spell checker/dictionary **
 * ** Word processing with spell checker **
 * ** Talking word processing **
 * ** Abbreviation/expansion **
 * ** Word processing with writing supports **
 * ** Multimedia software **
 * ** Voice recognition software ** ||
 * || **Word Cards/Word Banks/Word Wall**

Pocket Dictionary/Thesaurus
If a student is able to look up words in a dictionary or thesaurus, these pocket models can be useful. Because they are portable and unobtrusive, the student is able to utilize the tool whenever needed.

Written Templates and Guides
These may include “story starters” and other sentence builders that can help students by allowing them to fill in words or phrases to make complete sentences. Various templates can be created for the main idea, supporting characters, developing plots, etc. Templates can be created of varying complexity depending upon the needs of the student. Specific software such as //Kidspiration// or //Inspiration// work very well for making templates.

Portable Talking Spell Checkers, Dictionaries and Thesaurus
Stand-alone desktop and pocket sized spell checkers are available. Some are based on exact spelling while others use phonics to help a student find the word they are trying to write. Most stand alone spell checkers have a small keyboard to enter the word the way a student thinks it's spelled. Homonyms can be particularly difficult. When words sound alike but have different meanings (there/their/they're), some spell checkers will not show the other options. Using the wrong spelling changes the meaning and can increase the frustration of the writer, having a dictionary component as part of the spell checker can help decrease that frustration. When a word is spelled phonetically, it may not be recognized with all spell checkers. The spell checker suggests words that begin with the same two or three letters typed in. Spelling that's not phonetic may not be recognized, so no suggestions for the correct word are given. Chances of success are greater if the first two or three letters are typed correctly. Talking spell checkers and electronic dictionaries such as Franklin etc. can help a poor speller select or identify appropriate words and correct spelling errors during the process of writing and proofreading. Talking devices “read aloud” and display the selected words onscreen, so the user can see and hear the words. Match the student’s needs with the features - speech, thesaurus, help with words that sound alike but are spelled differently, and capabilities of the device. Check the keyboard of the electronic, handheld spell checker for asterisk and question mark keys. Depending on the design of the device, those two keys may be used to help you find the correct spelling. The asterisk often is used as a marker for an indefinite number of missing letters. For instance, typing in "neu*" yields a list of words beginning with those two letters and, hopefully, phonetic alternatives as well - "neutral," "new," "newt," "pneumonia." The question mark sometimes can be used in place of unknown letters. Typing in "p?t" brings a listing of all words in the spell checker's word base with that letter pattern - "pact," "pant," "past," "peat," "pelt," "plot." A stand-alone, electronic spell checker with asterisk and question mark keys and speech capability can be a helpful tool for students who struggle with spelling.

If the student is using a computer, websites like [|www.dictionary.com] can help with definitions and homonyms and [|www.visuwords.com] can give a visual representation to the words through color coding groups of meanings when a word has several uses. //Read and Write Gold// is one example of a software program that not only gives text to speech but also clarifies homophones.

Word Processing Software
Computers change the writing process by making it easier to access, develop, record and edit ideas, and to publish and share with others. Different computer supports are useful during different phases of the writing process. Students may need to change the size, color or shape of the font they write with. The background color can be formatted if needed and pictures added to cue up what they are writing about. These can be converted back to the “print standard” of an assignment—a student may prefer to type in 24 point font but the assignment needs to be converted back to 12 point font before it is turned in.

Word processing software (i.e., Microsoft //Word//, //Open Office, Claris Works, Word Perfect//) lets you see typed text on a computer screen before printing on paper. In this way, you can easily remove or add words, move sentences or paragraphs around, and correct spelling errors without having to rewrite the paper.

Grammar checkers, often included in word processing programs, check for errors in grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and word usage. Possible errors are shown on the computer screen and cue the student to check their writing, giving them a chance to correct problems before printing a document. Grammar check may be a part of the word processing program or purchased separately. Digital text also allows for easy formatting—it's easy to underline, boldface, change spacing between lines, center text or add visual elements.

The writing and editing process can be a laborious time-consuming task. Errors are easily corrected and information can be reorganized and edited before printing the final product. Other tool "add-ons" such as word prediction programs and/or abbreviation expansion, which are described below, can work along with word processing software for added support.

Word Prediction Software
Word prediction programs reduce the time, effort and frustration for individuals with spelling difficulties to produce written work by providing an on-screen list of possible words to use in a piece of writing. The student types a letter or two and the program provides a list of words (based on word frequency and context) beginning with that letter(s). If one of the choices is a word the student wishes to use, they select it. If not, the student enters another letter that produces a new set of choices.

Word Prediction software (i.e., //Co:Writer, WordQ, Read and Write Gold, Premier, and SOLO//) also include features such as spell checking as you type, multiple word prediction, text to speech, grammatical rules, phonetic spelling and hotkeys for frequently used words. Text-to-speech can provide auditory feedback to students to assist them in word choices and selection to monitor the structure and meaning of their work.

Digital Templates
Digital templates are interactive prompted writing guides that assist writers through the correct writing sequence. Some software (//SOLO//) uses prompt statements that guide students through each step of the writing process, from creating an introductory paragraph to completing the conclusion statement. Many allow you to modify any of the templates or create your own templates for any subject or assignment.

Abbreviation Expansion
Abbreviation Expansion software can be used to create abbreviated forms for frequently used words or phrases for slower writers and poor spellers. For example, if a student consistently misspells "conscious" they could type "c-o-n" and space bar in its place and the word "conscious" will automatically appear on the screen. This feature is often included in word prediction programs such as //Co:Writer// as well as word processing programs like MS //Word//.

Word Processing with digital supports
Students can be provided with access features to support their digital writing. Digital highlighters can be used to extract text from source documents, decreasing the copying time this would normally take. Digitally based graphic organizers can be used to group chunks of information that will be needed and to organize the circular thinking patterns students may have on a topic into an outline with a push of a button. This outline can then be exported to a word processing document or PowerPoint with the “organizational” elements intact. Some students benefit from hearing the words they are writing, text readers or read back elements can help them catch poor word choices or the correct spelling/wrong word used. Programs mentioned before such as word prediction and abbreviation/expansion help get the right words on paper, and built in tools such as the thesaurus, word count and grammar check can provide valuable editing feedback. Some new writing tools are emerging at the time of this writing that can assess not only writing conventions like punctuation and capitalization, but these tools can provide more in-depth feedback such as sentence length, sentences leading to a cohesive paragraph, or sentences that lead to a key point, all helping a student to evaluate their writing before it is turned in.

Talking Word Processing
This software is used to provide verbal feedback to a student while they write. The verbal feedback can be provided at a letter, word, sentence, or paragraph level. The entire document could also be read back. Some students are better able to hear mistakes than read for mistakes. Some examples of software that do this are //Write Out Loud, WordQ, Read and Write Gold, Premier//, etc. (See Chapter 7 – Assistive Technology for Reading for additional resources.)

Multimedia Software for Alternative Expression of Ideas
Improving access to digital media is changing the type of assignments students can use to express their understanding of content. Early multimedia such as //PowerPoint// or //HyperStudio// allowed a student to add pictures, videos, movement and sound to their projects. SMART® Notebook software is an example of a new generation of multimedia software. Alternative formats of expression may help some students get their “ideas out”.

PowerPoint, a program that is available in almost every school allows a student to add graphics, movement, charts and graphs, video, and voice to a project. Text to speech software can be used to read the text in the PowerPoint. Internet access allows a student to find the right pictures and videos to express an idea. Sound and video editing software such as //GarageBand// or //Audacity// are also available to edit media materials a student may want to use. Through picture editing and the slideshow feature, projects like //Claymation// and cartoons can be made. Personal publishing software, such as //Comic Book Creator//, allows students to use visuals to help make their point. Choosing the features that match a student’s motivation and/or abilities will help them create a project that can truly share what they know.

Graphic organizers like //Inspiration////, C-map// or //Spark-Space// can help a student visually and kinesthetically organize the bits of information gathered for a project prior to beginning the writing process. This information can then be organized into a coordinated whole.

Video and pod casting software can help a student express visually and verbally what they are struggling to get down on paper. Through the editing process they can organize those thoughts into a cohesive whole.

Some of the new online tools such as //Google Docs// or protected group spaces such as those found in //Moodle// can help students work together on writing projects. The group members are at their own workstation and see a group document at the same time. This may work well as an instructional strategy but can also be used by the students to create a better group document.

Voice Recognition (VR) Software
Voice recognition software is improving as fast as the new versions are released. Training time has been significantly decreased, ease of use increased, and student accuracy significantly improved. In addition to stand-alone VR software, VR is also built into other software such as //Office XP, Vista OS, WordQ, SpeakQ, Read and Write Gold and Premier.//

For all of the positives VR software may still fall short of getting the student’s thoughts and ideas down on paper. VR can not organize thoughts or improve sentence delivery on its own. A student’s jumbled thoughts or poor speech patterns will show up on the computer screen. Good training with voice recognition is important. Students need to master navigating the software and controlling the writing process by voice. They will still need to edit, catch the program’s misunderstood but correctly spelled words, and check their work. VR software can be used with an organizational software such as //Inspiration// to help enhance the organization of writing.

Students will need time to learn and master the VR program before they are expected to use it functionally in classroom assignments. Microphones may also be an issue. Many schools report they are using a lot of them. The tender wires take a beating in the school environment. Despite these challenges (needed training, proper computer equipment, still needing an organizational tool, etc.), students may benefit greatly by using their voice to write. (For more information, see Chapter 5, Assistive Technology for Motor aspects of Writing.) ||
 * Resources: || Chapter for Composing Written Material ||